Energy mass balanceCostingWind
Onshore wind farm: specific-power curve on a Weibull site, AEP and LCOE
Utility-scale onshore wind farm from a cited turbine case and a Weibull site: power curve derived from specific power, hub-height yield with named losses, CAPEX that responds to the turbine and to plant size, real LCOE on the Fraunhofer ISE 2024 basis.
- CurrencyEUR 2024
- Battery limitfully financed
- 94 documented assumptions
- Updated27 Oct 2026
Mass and energy balance
What the asset draws and delivers for the case and load you choose.
Reference case
Annual mean wind speed measured or modelled at the reference height, m/s. A site selector (Finland, France, Greece) will prefill it. Default 7.25 m/s at 50 m, the NREL 2024 reference land-based site.
Flows
Asset
Onshore wind farm
- Out: Electricity (net, metering point)—
Annual quantities at the current usage. Band width: share of energy in; non-energy flows are not to scale.
Installed capacity of the wind farm, MW. Default 201.3 MW = 61 x 3.3 MW, NREL's 2024 reference plant. The number of turbines follows as capacity / rated power, kept continuous (not rounded). Specific CAPEX follows a plant-size law with exponent 0.88, fitted on Berkeley Lab's installed costs by project size (2022-2023 US projects); the slider stays within the 20-300 MW those size classes cover. Fixed O&M stays proportional to capacity.
- Number of turbines
- — -
- Rotor diameter
- — m
- Net annual energy
- — MWh/year
- Average net power
- — MW
CAPEX
Specific cost at this size, what backs it, and how it behaves with scale.
Specific CAPEX at this size
—
Reference size 201.3 MW
Berkeley Lab Land-Based Wind Market Report 2024, Figure 44 (digitised)
Model value: Fraunhofer ISE 2024 average of 1,600 EUR/kW at the NREL reference turbine and plant, rescaled to the turbine geometry and to the plant size. Customized: the value below is used as entered, at every plant size and for every turbine, and is no longer a sourced figure.
Log in to view this sensitivity chart.
- Ex-factory
- Installed
- Fully financed· this figure
Included
- Equipment and installation
- Indirect and owner's costs
- Contingency
Not included
- Nothing
Added at project level
- Nothing: project mode uses the figure as is
Project figures
Values passed to project mode when this asset is added to a project.
Onshore wind farmConcept sketch, not to scale · drag to rotate
- Electricity (net, metering point) outMain product
- —
- CAPEX to the battery limit
- —
- Fixed O&M
- —
- Variable O&M, excluding feedstocks
- —
- Asset lifetime
- 25 years
Log in to add this asset to a project.
Levelised cost of electricity
A standalone indicator for a quick read. Project mode recomputes it for the whole system.
—
- LCOE - capital component—
- LCOE - fixed O&M component—
- LCOE - variable O&M component—
Linked to the balance above
Annual mean wind speed measured or modelled at the reference height, m/s. A site selector (Finland, France, Greece) will prefill it. Default 7.25 m/s at 50 m, the NREL 2024 reference land-based site.
Nameplate electrical output of one turbine, in MW as the catalog wind_turbine sheet stores it (a catalog machine prefills it). Default 3.3 MW, the NREL Cost of Wind Energy Review 2024 land-based reference turbine. The rotor diameter follows from the specific power of the reference case, so the rating sets the size of the turbine, not its capacity factor. With the NREL case (100 m hub) a rating above about 6 MW gives a rotor that no longer clears the ground and is refused.
Height at which the mean wind speed above is given, m. Set it equal to the hub height if your wind data are already at hub height, and the shear exponent then has no effect. Default 50 m (NREL reference site).
Shape of the wind speed distribution at the site. Low k (1.5) means a spread-out wind climate with many calm and stormy hours; high k (3) means steady trade-wind-like conditions. Default 2.0 (NREL reference site). Prefilled by the site selector.
Exponent of the power law v(h) = v_ref (h / h_ref)^alpha used to move the wind to hub height. Default 0.143, NREL's value for neutral stability. Forests and complex terrain are higher, open sea and flat coasts lower. Prefilled by the site selector.
Real weighted average cost of capital used to annualise CAPEX, as a fraction. Default 0.039 = Fraunhofer ISE 2024 onshore WACC, real (5.8 % nominal with 1.8 % inflation). Keep it real: every cost in this calculator is in constant 2024 euros without escalation.
Years over which CAPEX is annualised. Default 25 years (Fraunhofer ISE 2024 and NREL 2024).
Log in to view this sensitivity chart.
Benchmarks
This model's figures against published references and reference cases.
Reference cases at this size and usage
Log in to compare the reference cases.
All results
Every model output at the current settings, grouped, with the sensitivity charts.
51 outputs · 4 groups · 13 also shown above, dimmed
Site and wind resource
11- Mean wind speed at hub height
- Computingm/s
- Weibull scale A at hub height
- Computingm/s
- Mean wind power density at hub height
- ComputingW/m2
- Time below cut-in
- Computing%
- Time in partial load
- Computing%
- Time at rated power
- Computing%
- Time above cut-out
- Computing%
- Operating hours
- Computingh/year
- Below the weakest onshore class (flag)
- Computingflag
- Hub wind above IEC class I (flag)
- Computingflag
- Site outside the onshore envelope (flag)
- Computingflag
Turbine and power curve
9- Rotor swept area
- Computingm2
- Specific power
- ComputingW/m2
- Hub height
- Computingm
- Electrical power coefficient below rated
- Computing-
- Rated wind speed at site density
- Computingm/s
- Rated wind speed at 1.225 kg/m3
- Computingm/s
- Tower mass estimate
- Computingt
Energy yield and losses
12- Gross capacity factor
- Computing%
- Share of gross energy produced below rated
- Computing%
- Gross annual energy
- ComputingMWh/year
- Net-to-gross ratio
- Computing-
- Total losses
- Computing%
- Net capacity factor
- Computing%
- Full-load hours (net)
- Computingh/year
- Net annual energy per turbine
- ComputingMWh/year
- Net yield per square metre of rotor
- ComputingkWh/m2/year
Costs
19- Blade cost factor
- Computing-
- Tower cost factor
- Computing-
- CAPEX scale factor
- Computing-
- Model specific CAPEX at the reference plant
- ComputingEUR/kW
- Plant-size factor on specific CAPEX
- Computing-
- Blades and tower share of CAPEX (model breakdown)
- Computing%
- Total CAPEX in million euros
- ComputingMEUR
- Capital recovery factor (real)
- Computing1/year
- Annualised CAPEX
- ComputingEUR/year
- Total annual cost
- ComputingEUR/year
- Capital share of the LCOE
- Computing%
Sensitivities
7 chartsLog in to view this sensitivity chart.
Log in to view this sensitivity chart.
Log in to view this sensitivity chart.
Log in to view this sensitivity chart.
Log in to view this sensitivity chart.
Log in to view this sensitivity chart.
Log in to view this sensitivity chart.
Sources
94 documented assumptions · 9 sources
- docs.nlr.govNREL Cost of Wind Energy Review2024 Edition (NREL/PR-5000-91775): land-based reference turbine and site, losses, net capacity factor, CapEx breakdown, CRF
- docs.nlr.govIEA Wind TCP Task 37 Reference Wind Turbines (NREL/TP-5000-73492)3.4 MW land-based turbine, Cp max 0.481, drivetrain-generator efficiency 93.6 %, rated 9.8 m/s, tower 553 t
- github.comNREL turbine-modelspublished power curve of the 3.3 MW / 148 m reference turbine (independent check of the parametric curve)
- ise.fraunhofer.deFraunhofer ISE (July 2024), Levelized Cost of Electricity - Renewable Energy Technologiesonshore CAPEX 1,300-1,900 EUR/kW, O&M, real WACC 3.9 %, 25 years, site classes and LCOE
- doi.orgJourdier & Drobinski (2017), Errors in wind resource and energy yield assessments based on the Weibull distribution, Ann. Geophys. 35
- docs.nlr.govFingersh, Hand, Laxson (2006), Wind Turbine Design Cost and Scaling Model (NREL/TP-500-40566)WindPACT blade cost law, tower mass from swept area x hub height
- docs.nlr.govFields et al. (2021), Wind Plant Performance Prediction Benchmark Phase 1 (NREL/TP-5000-78715)median wake 6.75 %, turbine performance 3.35 %, total losses 18.8 %
- github.comNREL System Advisor Model, wind defaultsavailability 5.50 %, electrical 2.01 %, environmental 2.40 % losses
- eta-publications.lbl.govBerkeley Lab (2024), Land-Based Wind Market Report2024 Edition: installed project costs by project size (Figure 44), basis of the plant-size exponent
About
Calculator context
About
Calculator context
A screening model of a utility-scale onshore wind farm of identical turbines, built to give an energy yield and an LCOE that can be defended line by line. Its inputs are decisions: the plant capacity in MW, the turbine rating in MW (the unit of the catalog wind_turbine sheet, so a catalog machine prefills it), a reference turbine case that fixes specific power, hub height, cut-in and cut-out (the NREL Cost of Wind Energy Review 2024 reference, the IEA Wind Task 37 3.4 MW reference, or the Vestas V162-6.2 MW of the catalog), and the site as a wind study summarises it (mean wind speed at a reference height, Weibull k, shear exponent). The rotor diameter follows from the rating and the specific power of the case, and the number of turbines from capacity / rating. Air density (1.225 kg/m3) and the four losses are model values.
Yield. The mean wind is carried to hub height with the power law, and the Weibull scale follows from mean = A x Gamma(1 + 1/k) (Jourdier & Drobinski 2017), with Gamma from the Stirling series (DLMF 5.11.1). The power curve is parametric: below rated, P = 1/2 rho Cp A v^3 with an electrical Cp of 0.4502, the product of the peak aerodynamic Cp (0.481) and the drivetrain-generator efficiency (93.6 %) of the IEA Wind Task 37 3.4 MW reference turbine; then rated power up to cut-out. The rated wind speed is therefore derived, not entered: a lower specific power lowers it and raises the capacity factor. The curve is integrated exactly on the rated plateau and by 5-point Gauss-Legendre quadrature (DLMF Table 3.5.1) below rated. Four named losses are chained multiplicatively: wake 6.75 % (median of the NREL WP3 benchmark), availability 5.50 % and electrical 2.01 % (NREL SAM defaults), other 5.67 % (SAM environmental 2.40 % with the WP3 median turbine-performance loss 3.35 %; raise it for icing).
Validation, without circularity. At the NREL Cost of Wind Energy Review 2024 land-based reference (3.3 MW, 148 m, 100 m, 61 turbines; 7.25 m/s at 50 m, k = 2, shear 0.143) the model gives 8.01 m/s at hub height, a gross capacity factor of 57.79 % and a net capacity factor of 47.07 % (4,124 full-load hours), against 57.7 %, 46.9 % and 4,104 MWh/MW/yr printed by NREL. None of these three results enters the calculation: Cp comes from a different turbine and the losses (18.55 % combined) from WP3 and SAM, not from NREL's 18.8 %. NREL's published 3.3 MW power curve, integrated on the same Weibull, gives 57.68 %; the parametric curve stays within -0.3 % to +0.25 % of it for hub means of 5.5-9.5 m/s at k = 2 and within -1.5 % to +0.5 % at k = 1.5 and 3, partly by compensation (the real curve peaks higher and reaches rated later).
Cost. CAPEX is Fraunhofer ISE 2024's all-in specific investment for onshore wind (1,600 EUR/kW, the average of a 1,300-1,900 range, constant 2024 euros), anchored on the NREL reference turbine and plant (ISE prints no plant size) and made to respond to the turbine: blades (14.33 % of NREL's 2024 CapEx) follow the WindPACT blade-cost law D^2.879 and the tower (14.02 %) the tower mass of the NREL cost and scaling model, both per turbine; the remaining 71.65 % follows rated power. Plant size then scales the specific CAPEX with an exponent of 0.88, fitted on Berkeley Lab's 2024 installed costs by project size (2022-2023 projects, 20 MW to over 200 MW): +31.9 % at 20 MW and -4.7 % at 300 MW, which moves the LCOE from 47.2 to 38.2 EUR/MWh at the reference turbine and site. At the reference site and plant the three cases give 39.3 EUR/MWh (NREL, 3.3 MW, 47.1 % net), 40.6 (IEA, 3.37 MW, 42.9 %) and 42.1 (Vestas, 6.2 MW, 40.8 %). The LCOE is a real annuity with ISE's real WACC of 3.9 %, 25 years, 32 EUR/kW/yr fixed and 7 EUR/MWh variable O&M: 39.3 EUR/MWh at the defaults (24.6 capital, 7.8 fixed and 7.0 variable O&M). Fed with ISE's own investment and full-load hours, the same formula returns all six onshore LCOE values ISE prints (7.1 / 5.3 / 4.3 and 9.2 / 6.8 / 5.5 ct/kWh at 1,800 / 2,500 / 3,200 h) to the printed digit, so the CAPEX goes to project mode as fully financed, with no further cost layer. A Customized option replaces the model CAPEX by a quote, used as entered at every plant size. Fixed O&M stays linear in capacity: no plant-size effect on O&M is modelled.
Limits. Weibull-based yields carry a mean absolute error of about 5 % (2 % with the WAsP fit) on 89 French stations (Jourdier & Drobinski 2017). The knee of the curve near rated, turbulence, an air density other than 1.225 kg/m3, terrain effects, curtailment and icing beyond the other-loss line are not modelled. Sites outside the onshore envelope are computed and flagged: under 1,800 full-load hours (ISE's weakest German case) or a hub-height mean above 10 m/s (IEC class I).
Model
163 variables — inputs, calculations and outputs, with their dependencies.
Model
163 variables — inputs, calculations and outputs, with their dependencies.
| Variable | Value | Unit | Depends on |
|---|---|---|---|
| 201.3 | MW | — | |
| 3.3 | MW | — | |
| 1 | — | — | |
| 7.25 | m/s | — | |
| 50 | m | — | |
| 2 | - | — | |
| 0.143 | - | — | |
| 0 | — | — | |
| 1600 | EUR/kW | — | |
| 0.039 | ratio | — | |
| 25 | years | — |
| Variable | Formula | Unit | Depends on |
|---|---|---|---|
if(==,,if(==,,)) | MW | ||
if(==,,if(==,,)) | m | ||
if(==,,if(==,,)) | m/s | ||
if(==,,if(==,,)) | m/s | ||
if((<=0)+(<=0)+(<)+(>)+(<=*)+(<=0)+(<=0)+(<=0)+(<0)+(<0)+(>)+(<=0)+(<0)+(<)>0,1,0) | bool | ||
/max(,)+ | - | ||
(-)*ln()-++/(*)-/(***)+/(*****) | - | ||
exp()/((-)*(-)) | - | ||
/max(,)+ | - | ||
(-)*ln()-++/(*)-/(***)+/(*****) | - | ||
exp()/((-)*(-)) | - | ||
*** | W.s3/m3 | ||
exp(-((/)^)) | - | ||
exp(-((/)^)) | - | ||
exp(-((/)^)) | - | ||
(+)* | m/s | ||
(-)* | m/s | ||
-* | m/s | ||
-* | m/s | ||
+* | m/s | ||
+* | m/s | ||
^*(/)*(/)^(-)*exp(-((/)^)) | m2/s2 | ||
^*(/)*(/)^(-)*exp(-((/)^)) | m2/s2 | ||
^*(/)*(/)^(-)*exp(-((/)^)) | m2/s2 | ||
^*(/)*(/)^(-)*exp(-((/)^)) | m2/s2 | ||
^*(/)*(/)^(-)*exp(-((/)^)) | m2/s2 | ||
*(*(+)+*(+)+*) | m3/s3 | ||
*/ | MW | ||
*(-) | MW | ||
+ | MW | ||
(*****-)* | t | ||
(*+*)**/max(,) | - |
| Variable | Formula | Unit | Depends on |
|---|---|---|---|
*/(***) | W/m2 | ||
if(==,,if(==,,)) | m | ||
sqrt(max(,)*/(**)) | m | ||
/max(,) | - | ||
*** | m2 | ||
** | - | ||
*(/max(,))^ | m/s | ||
/max(,) | m/s | ||
**^* | W/m2 | ||
(*/max(,))^ | m/s | ||
*(/)^ | m/s | ||
(-)* | % | ||
(-)* | % | ||
(-)* | % | ||
* | % | ||
(-)* | h/year | ||
/max(,)* | % | ||
/max(,)* | % | ||
*** | MWh/year | ||
(-*)*(-*)*(-*)*(-*) | - | ||
(-)* | % | ||
* | % | ||
** | h/year | ||
* | MWh/year | ||
* | MWh/year | ||
- | MWh/year | ||
*/max(,) | kWh/m2/year | ||
/ | MW | ||
if(<,1,0) | flag | ||
if(>,1,0) | flag | ||
if(+>0,1,0) | flag | ||
(**-)* | t | ||
(/)^ | - | ||
/max(,) | - | ||
(--)*+ | - | ||
* | EUR/kW | ||
(/)^(-) | - | ||
if(>=,,clamp(*,,)) | EUR/kW | ||
/max(,)* | % | ||
** | EUR | ||
* | MEUR | ||
if(<,/max(,),(*(+)^)/max((+)^-,)) | 1/year | ||
* | EUR/year | ||
** | EUR/year | ||
* | EUR/year | ||
++ | EUR/year | ||
/max(,) | EUR/MWh | ||
/max(,) | EUR/MWh | ||
/max(,) | EUR/MWh | ||
/max(,) | EUR/MWh | ||
/max(,)* | % |
Assumptions
94 assumptions used in the calculations
Assumptions
94 assumptions used in the calculations
Keeps divisions finite when a denominator could reach zero outside the valid domain.
Market range Not applicable (numerical parameter).
0Numerical guardThe DSL forbids inline numbers, so complements are written with this constant.
Market range Exact by definition.
1Arithmetic constantShifts the Stirling evaluation two steps up and back down.
Market range Exact integer.
2Gamma recurrenceSeveral exact halves of the physics and of the quadrature mapping.
Market range Exact 0.5.
0.5Kinetic energy and quadratureSwept area = pi D^2 / 4.
Market range Exact to machine precision.
3.141593MathematicsConverts capacity factors to hours and energy, and annual energy to average MW.
Market range 8760 (8784 in a leap year).
8760h/yearCalendar conventionConverts plant capacity to kW for EUR/kW costs.
Market range Exact factor 1,000.
1000kW/MWUnit conversionRated power in W for the power-curve equation in SI units.
Market range Exact factor 10^6.
1000000W/MWUnit conversionSpecific yield in kWh per m2.
Market range Exact factor 1,000 for energy.
1000kWh/MWhUnit conversionPercent inputs (losses, efficiency) are converted to fractions in the DSL.
Market range Exact 1/100.
0.01Unit conversionCapacity factors, time shares and shares are reported in percent.
Market range Exact 100.
100%Unit conversionTower mass reported in tonnes.
Market range Exact 1/1,000.
0.001t/kgUnit conversionTotal CAPEX also shown in MEUR for reading.
Market range Exact 10^-6.
0.000001MEUR/EURUnit conversionSwept area from the rotor diameter.
Market range Exact 1/4.
0.25GeometryThe DSL has no gamma(); the Stirling series is evaluated three steps up, then brought back with the recurrence.
Market range Exact integer shift.
3Stirling series with recurrenceFirst correction term of the Stirling series.
Market range Exact 12.
12Stirling series coefficientSecond correction term of the Stirling series.
Market range Exact 360.
360Stirling series coefficientThird correction term of the Stirling series.
Market range Exact 1,260.
1260Stirling series coefficientConstant term of the Stirling series.
Market range 0.918938533204673.
0.918939Stirling series constantPower curve below rated and wind power density.
Market range Exact 3.
3Physics of wind powerDerives the rated wind speed and the density rescaling.
Market range 1/3 to machine precision.
0.333333Inverse of the cubic lawFive-point Gauss-Legendre quadrature of the partial third moment between cut-in and rated speed: exact for polynomials up to degree 9; on this smooth integrand it matches a 200,000-step integration within 0.0001 capacity-factor point at the defaults.
Market range Exact value (1/3) sqrt(5 - 2 sqrt(10/7)); DLMF prints 15 digits.
0.538469Gauss-Legendre quadratureSecond abscissa pair of the quadrature.
Market range Exact value (1/3) sqrt(5 + 2 sqrt(10/7)).
0.90618Gauss-Legendre quadratureWeight of the midpoint of the cubic region.
Market range Exactly 128/225.
0.568889Gauss-Legendre quadratureWeight of the inner abscissa pair.
Market range Exact value (322 + 13 sqrt(70)) / 900.
0.478629Gauss-Legendre quadratureWeight of the outer abscissa pair.
Market range Exact value (322 - 13 sqrt(70)) / 900.
0.236927Gauss-Legendre quadraturePeak aerodynamic power coefficient, taken from a turbine other than the NREL validation turbine so that the NREL check stays independent.
Market range Same IEA report: 0.481 for the 3.4 MW land-based rotor, 0.49 for the 10 MW offshore rotor (Table 16); Betz limit 16/27 = 0.593.
0.481IEA Wind Task 37 RWTConverts aerodynamic power to electrical power; the electrical Cp is the product of the two components.
Market range No independent range cited for the combined drivetrain and generator efficiency.
93.6%IEA Wind Task 37 RWTRescales the derived rated speed to the density on which manufacturers print it.
Market range Fixed reference value.
1.225kg/m3Sea-level standard atmosphereThreshold of the low-yield flag.
Market range ISE onshore cases: 1,800 / 2,500 / 3,200 h.
1800h/yearFraunhofer ISE 2024Threshold of the high-wind flag: above it the site needs a class S turbine and leaves the onshore reference the model is checked on.
Market range Class I 10 / II 8.5 / III 7.5 m/s annual mean at hub height.
10m/sIEC 61400-1 wind classesRating at which the reference specific CAPEX applies.
Market range Reference rating, not a market range.
3.3MWNREL CoWER 2024Rotor diameter at which the blade cost factor equals 1.
Market range Reference rotor, not a market range.
148mNREL CoWER 2024Hub height at which the tower cost factor equals 1.
Market range Reference hub height, not a market range.
100mNREL CoWER 2024Part of the specific CAPEX that scales with the blade cost law instead of with rated power.
Market range No independent European breakdown cited.
14.33%Derived from NREL CoWER 2024Part of the specific CAPEX that scales with the tower mass instead of with rated power.
Market range No independent European breakdown cited.
14.02%Derived from NREL CoWER 2024Blade cost grows faster than swept area; without it the LCOE would fall without limit as the rotor grows.
Market range WindPACT fit; the baseline material cost in the same figure scales with R^3.
2.879NREL cost and scaling modelTower mass, hence tower cost, scales with swept area times hub height.
Market range Single published fit; no independent range cited.
0.3973kg/m3NREL cost and scaling modelIntercept of the tower mass fit.
Market range Part of the same fit.
1414kgNREL cost and scaling modelLower bound of the clamp that keeps the scaled CAPEX finite outside the valid domain.
Market range Not a market value.
500EUR/kWNumerical guardUpper bound of the clamp.
Market range Not a market value.
4000EUR/kWNumerical guardDefault turbine = NREL 2024 land-based reference.
Market range Catalog sheet: 0.5-25 MW; this calculator accepts 1.5-8 MW onshore machines (about 6 MW at most on the NREL case, whose 100 m hub limits the rotor).
3.3MWNREL CoWER 2024Default site = NREL 2024 reference land-based site.
Market range Slider 4-11 m/s.
7.25m/sNREL CoWER 2024Height of the default wind data.
Market range Slider 10-200 m.
50mNREL CoWER 2024Default shape of the wind distribution.
Market range Slider 1.5-3.
2-NREL CoWER 2024Default power-law shear exponent.
Market range Slider 0.05-0.4.
0.143-NREL CoWER 2024Model value: sea-level standard density at hub height. Limit: a cold site (northern Finland) or a high site (Greek ridges at 1,000 m and above) is not represented; its yield below rated would differ by the density ratio.
Market range Not an input: about 1.05-1.35 kg/m3 from mountain ridges to cold northern sites, not modelled.
1.225kg/m3Sea-level standardModel value (not an input): default wake loss.
Market range Project-specific; no range cited beyond the WP3 median.
6.75%NREL WP3 benchmarkModel value (not an input): default availability loss.
Market range Component values as listed in SAM.
5.5%NREL SAMModel value (not an input): default electrical loss.
Market range Component values as listed in SAM.
2.01%NREL SAMModel value (not an input): default other losses; icing beyond SAM's 0.21 % belongs here.
Market range No range cited for the combined line; icing sites need their own estimate.
5.67%Derived from NREL SAM and WP3Model value at the reference turbine and plant, constant 2024 euros. ISE prints no plant size; the average is applied at NREL's 201.3 MW reference plant, then scaled by the plant-size law.
Market range ISE 2024: 1,300-1,900 EUR/kW (the bounds of the Customized slider).
1600EUR/kWFraunhofer ISE 2024Model value: fixed O&M, linear in capacity. No plant-size effect on O&M is modelled: Berkeley Lab's O&M sample is not split by project size.
Market range ISE prints a single value; no range cited.
32EUR/kW/yearFraunhofer ISE 2024Default variable O&M.
Market range Single ISE value, a model value here.
7EUR/MWhFraunhofer ISE 2024Real rate, consistent with constant 2024 euros.
Market range ISE 3.9 % real / 5.8 % nominal; NREL 3.66 % real.
0.039ratioFraunhofer ISE 2024Annuity period.
Market range Both sources: 25 years.
25yearsFraunhofer ISE 2024Rated speed is derived from specific power, so a larger rotor at equal rating raises the capacity factor and a different machine gives a different result.
Market range Real curves have a softer knee near rated (Region II 1/2), not modelled.
—Idealised power curveExact difference of the survival function on the rated plateau; 5-point Gauss-Legendre on the cubic region between cut-in and the derived rated speed.
Market range Not applicable (method).
—Numerical methodEach loss acts on what the previous ones left.
Market range WP3: consultant totals 14-26 %, median 18.8 %.
—Loss chainIndependent check of the yield chain on a published reference.
Market range Not applicable (yield validation).
—NREL CoWER 2024Multi-point check of the idealised curve against a real one.
Market range Not applicable (power-curve check).
—NREL turbine-modelsChecks the cost method and the CAPEX boundary on ISE's own numbers.
Market range Not applicable (cost-method check).
—Fraunhofer ISE 2024Checks the annuity formula on a printed pair.
Market range Not applicable (formula check).
—NREL CoWER 2024costs.capex.isbl = total CAPEX, battery_limit = fully_financed.
Market range Not applicable (boundary declaration).
—Fraunhofer ISE 2024The meta exports undiscounted annual cash in 2024 euros; no discount rate enters any exported line.
Market range Not applicable (convention).
—Fraunhofer ISE 2024Without a cost response the LCOE would fall without limit with rotor size and hub height.
Market range Transposition of US shares to a European total: medium evidence.
—Cost modelConsistency only, not a validation.
Market range Not applicable (convergence check).
—Fraunhofer ISE 2024Uncertainty to state alongside any yield from a Weibull summary.
Market range About 2-5 % on annual energy.
—Jourdier & Drobinski 2017Keeps the site inputs wide enough for a site selector without hiding implausible combinations.
Market range Not applicable (method).
—Screening conventionProject mode reads total CAPEX (fully financed), fixed and variable O&M as annual cash, and the average net power as the electricity flow.
Market range Not applicable (scope).
—Project-mode contractNot modelled: Region II 1/2 and turbulence effects on the curve, terrain speed-up, a height-dependent shear, air density other than 1.225 kg/m3, icing beyond the other-loss line, curtailment, degradation of output over the life, any plant-size effect on O&M (fixed O&M stays linear in capacity), a rounding of the number of turbines, construction period and taxes.
Market range Not applicable (scope).
—Model limitsCase id: NREL CoWER 2024 reference turbine.
Market range Not applicable.
1Select optionCase id: IEA Wind Task 37 3.4 MW land-based reference turbine.
Market range Not applicable.
2Select optionCase id: Vestas V162-6.2 MW (catalog product).
Market range Not applicable.
3Select optionRating of the NREL case, used only to fix its specific power.
Market range Reference turbine, not a market range.
3.3MWNREL CoWER 2024Rotor of the NREL case, used to fix its specific power.
Market range Reference turbine, not a market range.
148mNREL CoWER 2024Hub height of the NREL case.
Market range Reference turbine, not a market range.
100mNREL CoWER 2024Cut-in of the NREL case.
Market range Reference turbine, not a market range.
3m/sNREL turbine-modelsCut-out of the NREL case.
Market range Reference turbine, not a market range.
25m/sNREL turbine-modelsRating of the IEA case, used to fix its specific power.
Market range Reference turbine, not a market range.
3.37MWIEA Wind Task 37 RWTRotor of the IEA case.
Market range Reference turbine, not a market range.
130mIEA Wind Task 37 RWTHub height of the IEA case.
Market range Reference turbine, not a market range.
110mIEA Wind Task 37 RWTCut-in of the IEA case.
Market range Reference turbine, not a market range.
4m/sIEA Wind Task 37 RWTCut-out of the IEA case.
Market range Reference turbine, not a market range.
25m/sIEA Wind Task 37 RWTRating of the Vestas case, used to fix its specific power; a catalog product prefills rated_power_mw.
Market range Single product; the product page also lists 5.6-6.5 MW operating modes, not used.
6.2MWVestasRotor of the Vestas case.
Market range Single product.
162mVestasHub height of the Vestas case.
Market range Product page: 119-169 m.
119mVestasCut-in of the Vestas case.
Market range Single product.
3m/sVestasCut-out of the Vestas case.
Market range Single product.
25m/sVestasDefault plant = NREL reference plant.
Market range Slider 20-300 MW, within the Berkeley Lab size classes used for the scale law.
201.3MWNREL CoWER 2024Reference size of the plant-size law: the specific CAPEX equals the model value here.
Market range Reference size, not a market range.
201.3MWNREL CoWER 2024Plant-level economy of scale on the all-in specific CAPEX: (P / 201.3 MW)^(0.88 - 1), +31.9 % at 20 MW and -4.7 % at 300 MW. Applied to the whole investment because Berkeley Lab reports whole installed project costs.
Market range0.88Berkeley Lab Land-Based Wind Market Report 2024, Figure 44 (digitised)Lets an expert with a supplier quote replace the model CAPEX; the page then marks it as unsourced.
Market range Not applicable.
0Page contractCustomized all-in specific CAPEX, used as is at every plant size and turbine (a quote is for its own turbine).
Market range ISE 2024: 1,300-1,900 EUR/kW.
1600EUR/kWFraunhofer ISE 2024