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Pumped hydro energy storage (PSH) plant

Pumped storage hydropower sized by rated power, duration and net head: reservoir volume and flow from E = rho g H V eta, sourced round-trip cases, PNNL cycle-time limit, PNNL CAPEX build-up with size and head scaling, O&M and a pre-tax real LCOS in constant EUR 2021.

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Open Jack

Founder · OpenJack

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  • CurrencyEUR 2021
  • Battery limitfully financed
  • 77 documented assumptions
  • Updated27 Oct 2026

Mass and energy balance

What the asset draws and delivers for the case and load you choose.

Reference case

Annual use requested by the dispatch, in full discharges of the stored energy. 365 is PNNL's cap and LCOS basis. The plant cannot exceed 8,760 h / (duration x (1 + 1/RTE)) (PNNL Eq. 2, rest time neglected): above about 10.7 h at 80 % the time limit binds.

Flows

  • In: Electricity for pumping—

Asset

Pumped hydro energy storage (PSH)

  • Out: Electricity discharged—

Annual quantities at the current usage.

Generating power of the reversible units, the size catalogue products bind to and the size the CAPEX scale law reads (PNNL -16 % per decade, reference 100 MW). PNNL costed 100 and 1,000 MW; Cohen et al. (NREL 2024) cover up to 2,100 MW. Below 100 MW no source covers the scale law: the result is flagged as an extrapolation.

Stored energy
— MWh
Design flow at rated power
— m3/s
Active reservoir volume
— Mm3
Annual energy discharged
— GWh/a

CAPEX

Specific cost at this size, what backs it, and how it behaves with scale.

Specific CAPEX at this size

—

Reference size 100 MW

PNNL-33283 Sec. 4.6.1, power-law form by OpenJack

Model value: PNNL cost build-up with its size and head rules. Customized: your own installed cost per kW (same boundary: electromechanical, powerhouse, waterways, reservoirs and contingency), applied as entered at every size, with no scale law. O&M stays on the PNNL model.

CAPEX per kW by rated power

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  1. Ex-factory
  2. Installed
  3. Fully financed· this figure
CAPEX at the battery limit—

Included

  • Equipment and installation
  • Indirect and owner's costs
  • Contingency

Not included

  • Nothing

Added at project level

  • Nothing: project mode uses the figure as is

Project figures

Values passed to project mode when this asset is added to a project.

Concept sketch, not to scale · drag to rotate

Electricity for pumping in
—
Electricity discharged outMain product
—
CAPEX to the battery limit
—
Fixed O&M
—
Variable O&M, excluding feedstocks
—
Asset lifetime
60 years

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Levelised cost of storage

A standalone indicator for a quick read. Project mode recomputes it for the whole system.

—

  • Capital component of LCOS—
  • Fixed O&M component of LCOS—
  • Variable O&M component of LCOS—
  • Charging component of LCOS—

Linked to the balance above

Annual use requested by the dispatch, in full discharges of the stored energy. 365 is PNNL's cap and LCOS basis. The plant cannot exceed 8,760 h / (duration x (1 + 1/RTE)) (PNNL Eq. 2, rest time neglected): above about 10.7 h at 80 % the time limit binds.

Hours at rated power from a full upper reservoir. Sets the stored energy (power x duration) and the reservoir cost. PNNL costed 4, 10, 24 and 100 h; ATB 8-12 h.

Mean net head between the reservoirs. Sets the water volume and flow for the stored energy and the head cost factor (475 m / head)^0.7. Covered by Cohen et al. sensitivities (152-762 m) and ATB (100-750 m). Kidston about 220 m, Gouvaes about 700 m.

Average price paid for pumping energy, constant EUR 2021. Default 25.37 = PNNL's US assumption of 0.03 USD/kWh: replace it with your market's off-peak price. In project mode the pumping electricity is the inlet and is priced by the project instead.

Average price obtained for the energy returned, used only for the arbitrage margin shown next to the LCOS. The default 100 is an illustrative value with no source: enter your market's peak price.

REAL rate, because every cost is in constant EUR 2021 with no escalation. Default 6.52 % = PNNL real WACC. Never enter a nominal rate here.

Period over which the CAPEX is annualised. 20 years is PNNL's economic life for every storage technology; 60 years is PNNL's calendar life for PSH, the upper end.

Levelised cost of storage by equivalent full cycles per year

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Benchmarks

This model's figures against published references and reference cases.

CAPEX per kW, EUR/kW

1,884 NREL ATB 2024

2,224 PNNL-33283

3,824 NREL ATB 2024

Levelised cost of storage, EUR/MWh

93 PNNL-33283

Reference cases at this size and usage

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All results

Every model output at the current settings, grouped, with the sensitivity charts.

57 outputs · 8 groups · 14 also shown above, dimmed

Levelised cost

11
Levelised cost of storage
ComputingEUR/MWh
Capital component of LCOS
ComputingEUR/MWh
Fixed O&M component of LCOS
ComputingEUR/MWh
Variable O&M component of LCOS
ComputingEUR/MWh
Charging component of LCOS
ComputingEUR/MWh
Capital share of LCOS
Computing%
Capital recovery factor
Computing1/year
Interest during construction factor
Computingratio
CAPEX with interest during construction
ComputingEUR
Annualised CAPEX
ComputingEUR/year
Total annual cost
ComputingEUR/year

Size and CAPEX

14
CAPEX per kW
ComputingEUR/kW
Total CAPEX
ComputingEUR
CAPEX per kWh
ComputingEUR/kWh
Model CAPEX per kW (scale law)
ComputingEUR/kW
Model CAPEX per kW at 100 MW
ComputingEUR/kW
Electromechanical CAPEX
ComputingEUR/kW
Powerhouse civil CAPEX
ComputingEUR/kW
Reservoir CAPEX per kW
ComputingEUR/kW
Contingency included
ComputingEUR/kW
Power scale factor
Computingratio
Energy scale factor
Computingratio
Head cost factor
Computingratio
Position in the ATB closed-loop band
Computing%
Outside the sourced domain
Computingflag

Reservoir and hydraulics

3
Stored energy
ComputingMWh
Active reservoir volume
ComputingMm3
Design flow at rated power
Computingm3/s

Energy balance

7
Round-trip efficiency
Computing%
Implied pumping-side efficiency
Computing%
Charging energy per MWh discharged
ComputingMWh/MWh
Annual energy discharged
ComputingGWh/a
Annual energy discharged
ComputingMWh/year
Annual pumping energy
ComputingMWh/year
Round-trip losses
ComputingMWh/year

Duty cycle

6
Time-limited maximum cycles
Computingcycles/year
Effective cycles per year
Computingcycles/year
Cycles lost to the time limit
Computing%
Generating hours per year
Computingh/year
Pumping hours per year
Computingh/year
Generating capacity factor
Computing%

O&M and charging

6
Labour O&M
ComputingUSD/kW/year
Fixed O&M per kW
ComputingEUR/kW/year
Fixed O&M
ComputingEUR/year
Variable O&M per MWh
ComputingEUR/MWh
Variable O&M
ComputingEUR/year
Charging cost
ComputingEUR/year

Arbitrage

3
Arbitrage spread
ComputingEUR/MWh
Arbitrage margin per year
ComputingEUR/year
Discharge price minus LCOS
ComputingEUR/MWh

Reference checks

7
PNNL installed-cost check
Computingratio
O&M closure check at 100 MW
Computingratio
O&M closure check at 1,000 MW
Computingratio
Stored-energy check on Cohen's large plant
Computingratio
PNNL reference CRF
Computing1/year
PNNL charging price
ComputingEUR/MWh
PNNL LCOS at 1,000 MW / 10 h
ComputingEUR/MWh

Sensitivities

6 charts
CAPEX per kW and LCOS vs rated power

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LCOS breakdown vs equivalent full cycles

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CAPEX and reservoir volume vs net head

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LCOS and annual energy vs storage duration

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LCOS build-up vs charging price

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LCOS vs real discount rate

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Sources

77 documented assumptions · 5 sources

About

Calculator context

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) plant, closed or open loop, sized by its rated power (MW), its storage duration and its net head. It answers the question a financier asks first: what does a MWh returned to the grid cost, and where does each part of that figure come from.

Energy and water. Stored energy = rated power x duration. The active reservoir volume and the design flow follow from E = rho g H V eta with Cohen et al.'s 88 % generating efficiency (NREL/TP-6A40-84875, 2024); the relation reproduces Cohen's two printed plants without calibration (18,597 vs 18,593 MWh, and 909 vs 909 MWh). The round-trip efficiency is a sourced reference case, not a slider: PNNL 2022 central 80 %, or the ends of the ATB 2024 literature range, 70 % and 87 %. No source splits it into machine, waterway and transformer losses with its own figures, so the model does not pretend to derive it; it shows the pumping-side efficiency each case implies (98.9 % at 87 %, which flags that case as the top of the range). Cycles: the requested equivalent full cycles (at most 365, PNNL's basis) are capped by PNNL's cycle-time limit, 8,760 h / (duration x (1 + 1/RTE)), which binds above about 10.7 h at 80 %.

CAPEX. PNNL's PSH method (2020, kept in PNNL-33283, 2022), in 2021 dollars converted at the ECB 2021 average (1.1827 USD/EUR): electromechanical 467 USD/kW and powerhouse civil works 742 USD/kW, each falling 16 % per decade of power from 100 MW; reservoir 76 USD/kWh, falling 16 % per decade of MWh from 800 MWh; 33 % contingency on the direct cost. A head factor (475 m / head)^0.7 is applied to the direct cost: its exponent is deduced from Cohen et al.'s head sensitivities (Fig. 4-5), a one-parameter calibration declared at evidence level medium, because PNNL itself lists the head dependence as not yet quantified. Checks: at 100 MW / 10 h / 475 m the build-up gives 2,200 EUR/kW against PNNL's printed 263 USD/kWh = 2,224 EUR/kW (0.989, same source, so a reproduction check), and 1,015 USD/kW for electromechanical plus civil at 1,000 MW, PNNL's printed figure. The CAPEX can be replaced by a supplier quote (Customized), used as entered at every size.

O&M and LCOS. Fixed O&M from PNNL Table 4.29: labour 15.75 USD/kW-yr at 100 MW, doubling in total per decade of power (3.15 at 1,000 MW, as printed), parts 5.59 and refurbishment 6.85, which covers major overhauls, so no replacement is scheduled; PNNL's small storage-related term beyond 10 h is omitted. Variable O&M 0.58 USD/MWh (ATB 2024). LCOS = [CRF x CAPEX x IDC + fixed O&M] / MWh discharged + variable O&M + charging price / RTE, PNNL-33283 Eq. 1 with a real-rate CRF, pre-tax, all in constant EUR 2021. Interest during construction is approximated as (1 + r)^(5/2) over PNNL's five-year build. Defaults (1,000 MW, 10 h, 475 m, 80 %, 365 cycles, 25.37 EUR/MWh charging = PNNL's 0.03 USD/kWh, 6.52 % real, 20 years): 89.7 EUR/MWh, CAPEX 1,848 EUR/kW, 10,000 MWh stored, 3,650 GWh/a returned, 8.78 Mm3 of active storage. PNNL prints 0.11 USD/kWh = 93.0 EUR/MWh for the same size and duration after tax, 3.5 % above the model, not calibrated. Kidston-like plant (250 MW, 8 h, 220 m): 157.3 EUR/MWh, 3,267 EUR/kW, 730 GWh/a. Gouvaes-like plant (880 MW, 6 h, 700 m): 97.5 EUR/MWh, 1,218 EUR/kW. The CAPEX is placed on the NREL ATB 2024 closed-loop band, 1,884-3,824 EUR/kW in 2021 money.

Domain. Rated power 50-2,000 MW: PNNL costed 100 and 1,000 MW and Cohen's model is valid up to 2,100 MW, but no source covers 50-100 MW, so the scale law is an extrapolation there and the result carries an out-of-domain flag. Head 150-760 m (Cohen sensitivities 152-762 m, ATB 100-750 m). Duration 4-24 h (PNNL 4/10/24 h). The optional arbitrage margin (discharge price - charging price / RTE, times energy discharged) is shown next to the LCOS, never inside it. In project mode the pumping electricity is the inlet and is priced by the project; the exported CAPEX is the all-in overnight cost with contingency (fully_financed) and the asset life is PNNL's 60-year calendar life.

Model

138 variables — inputs, calculations and outputs, with their dependencies.

138 variables shown of 138
VariableValueUnitDepends on
1000MW—
10h—
475m—
365cycles/year—
1——
0——
2000EUR/kW—
25.37EUR/MWh—
100EUR/MWh—
6.52%—
20years—
VariableFormulaUnitDepends on
if((<=0)+(>)+(<=0)+(<=0)+(<=0)+(>)+(<)+(>)+(<0)+(>)+(<=0)+(<0)+(<0)+(<0)+(>)+(<=0)+(>)>0,1,0)bool
*ratio
*ratio
+*ratio
*ratio
VariableFormulaUnitDepends on
if(==,,if(==,,))%
/max(,)*%
/max(,)MWh/MWh
*MWh
*/max(***,)*Mm3
*/max(***,)m3/s
/max(*(+),)cycles/year
min(,)cycles/year
(-/max(,))*%
*h/year
*h/year
/*%
*MWh/year
*GWh/a
*MWh/year
-MWh/year
(/max(,))^ratio
(/)^(ln(-*)/ln())ratio
(/)^(ln(-*)/ln())ratio
***/EUR/kW
***/EUR/kW
****/EUR/kW
(++**((*)/)^(ln(-*)/ln()))**/EUR/kW
clamp(*(/)^(-),,)EUR/kW
if(>=,,)EUR/kW
*(-)/EUR/kW
/max(,)EUR/kWh
**EUR
if(<,/,(*(+)^)/max((+)^-,))1/year
(+)^(*)ratio
*EUR
*EUR/year
*(/)^(ln()/ln()-)USD/kW/year
(++)/EUR/kW/year
**EUR/year
/EUR/MWh
*EUR/year
*EUR/year
+++EUR/year
/max(,)EUR/MWh
/max(,)EUR/MWh
EUR/MWh
*EUR/MWh
+++EUR/MWh
/max(,)*%
-*EUR/MWh
*EUR/year
-EUR/MWh
if((<)+(>)+(<)+(>)+(<)+(>)>0,1,0)flag
(-/)/max((-)/,)*%
/EUR/MWh
(**(+*)^)/max((+*)^-,)1/year
(++**((*)/)^(ln(-*)/ln()))*(+*)/(*)ratio
(*(/)^(ln()/ln()-)++)/ratio
(++)/ratio
******//ratio
*/EUR/MWh

Assumptions

77 assumptions used in the calculations

  • Protects divisions.

    Market range Not applicable.

    0
    OpenJack DSL convention

  • Unit term in the CRF, the contingency multiplier, the cycle-time limit and the guards.

    Market range Exact, no range.

    1
    Unit conversion

  • Base of the decimal logarithm: PNNL states its size rules per decade (per 10x), so the exponent is ln(1 - drop)/ln(10).

    Market range Exact, no range.

    10
    Unit conversion

  • Turns a percent (0-100) into a fraction.

    Market range Exact, no range.

    0.011/%
    Unit conversion

  • Turns a fraction into a percent.

    Market range Exact, no range.

    100%
    Unit conversion

  • MW to kW, for per-kW costs.

    Market range Exact, no range.

    1000kW/MW
    Unit conversion

  • MW to W, for the hydraulic flow at rated power.

    Market range Exact, no range.

    1000000W/MW
    Unit conversion

  • 1 MWh = 3.6e9 J, for the potential-energy relation E = rho g H V eta.

    Market range Exact, no range.

    3600000000J/MWh
    Unit conversion

  • MWh to GWh for the annual energy output.

    Market range Exact, no range.

    0.001GWh/MWh
    Unit conversion

  • m3 to million m3 for the reservoir volume.

    Market range Exact, no range.

    0.000001Mm3/m3
    Unit conversion

  • MWh to kWh, used to turn PNNL's USD/kWh LCOS into USD/MWh.

    Market range Exact, no range.

    1000kWh/MWh
    Unit conversion

  • Time base of the cycle-time limit and of the capacity factor.

    Market range 8,760 h (8,784 in a leap year).

    8760h/year
    Calendar convention

  • Spend assumed concentrated at mid-construction, the usual screening simplification for a multi-year build.

    Market range A uniform S-curve gives a similar factor; a front-loaded civil works schedule gives a higher one. No independent range cited.

    0.5
    OpenJack approximation

  • Pump-turbines, motor-generators and electrical plant, per kW at the 100 MW reference.

    Market range Single PNNL value at 100 MW.

    467USD/kW
    PNNL 2020 Table 5, USD 2021 basis of PNNL-33283

  • Construction and installation of the powerhouse and waterways, per kW at the 100 MW reference.

    Market range Single PNNL value at 100 MW.

    742USD/kW
    PNNL 2020 Table 5

  • Upper and lower reservoirs, dams and intake works, per kWh of stored energy.

    Market range Single PNNL value at 1,000 MWh.

    76USD/kWh
    PNNL-33283 / PNNL 2020 Table 8

  • Contingency on the direct cost, already inside PNNL's installed cost: the CAPEX exported to project mode is declared fully_financed so the project does not add a second contingency.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    33%
    PNNL 2020 Table 5

  • Economy of scale on the power-related cost (electromechanical and powerhouse civil works).

    Market range Single PNNL rule, analysed at 100 and 1,000 MW only.

    16%
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 4.6.1

  • Reference power of the scale law and of the labour O&M rule.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    100MW
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 4.6.1

  • Economy of scale on the reservoir cost.

    Market range Single PNNL rule.

    16%
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 4.6.1

  • Reference energy of the reservoir scale rule.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    800MWh
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 4.6.1

  • Exponent of the CAPEX scale law on rated power, the asset size the catalogue binds to.

    Market range -16 % per decade of power and of energy (PNNL).

    0.924279
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 4.6.1, power-law form by OpenJack

  • Higher head means less water, smaller waterways and smaller machines for the same power and energy, so a lower cost per kW and per kWh.

    Market range b = 0.43-1.0 depending on the case fitted (Cohen Fig. 4-5).

    0.7
    Fit of Cohen et al. Fig. 4-5

  • Reference head of the head cost factor (factor = 1 at 475 m).

    Market range Single value.

    475m
    Cohen et al. Table 2

  • Generating-mode conversion used to size the reservoir volume and the design flow from the stored energy.

    Market range Single NREL value.

    88%
    Cohen et al. Table 2

  • Grid-to-grid round-trip efficiency of the PNNL central case. With the 88 % generating figure it implies 90.9 % on the pumping side.

    80%
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 4.6.4.2

  • Older or variable-speed-less plants, long waterways.

    70%
    NREL ATB 2024

  • Best modern plants, short waterways.

    87%
    NREL ATB 2024

  • PNNL 2022 central case, round trip 80 %.

    Market range Not applicable.

    1
    OpenJack DSL convention

  • ATB 2024 low end, round trip 70 %.

    Market range Not applicable.

    2
    OpenJack DSL convention

  • ATB 2024 high end, round trip 87 %.

    Market range Not applicable.

    3
    OpenJack DSL convention

  • Physical service life; also the longest annuity period accepted.

    Market range 60 years (PNNL); civil works often last longer.

    60years
    PNNL-33283 Table 6.2

  • PNNL's payback period for every storage technology.

    Market range 20 years (PNNL base case).

    20years
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 6.1.2

  • Construction period of a PSH plant.

    Market range Single PNNL value; large projects often take longer.

    5years
    PNNL-33283 Table 6.2

  • Real rate, consistent with costs in constant 2021 money and no escalation.

    Market range PNNL real interest rate 5.06 % to real cost of equity 9.92 % (Table 6.1).

    6.52%
    PNNL-33283 Table 6.1

  • Labour O&M at 100 MW, per kW-year.

    Market range 15.75 at 100 MW, 3.15 at 1,000 MW.

    15.75USD/kW/year
    PNNL-33283 Table 4.29

  • Total labour doubles per decade of power, so labour per kW falls as (P/100)^(log10 2 - 1).

    Market range Single PNNL rule.

    2
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 4.6.2

  • Spare parts, per kW-year.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    5.59USD/kW/year
    PNNL-33283 Table 4.29

  • Major overhauls and refurbishment, spread per kW-year.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    6.85USD/kW/year
    PNNL-33283 Table 4.29

  • Printed total at 100 MW, used only as a check.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    28.19USD/kW/year
    PNNL-33283 Table 4.29

  • Printed total at 1,000 MW, used only as a check.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    15.6USD/kW/year
    PNNL-33283 Table 4.29

  • Large PNNL configuration.

    Market range 100 and 1,000 MW only.

    1000MW
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 4.6

  • Configuration of the installed-cost check.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    10h
    PNNL-33283 Executive Summary

  • Variable O&M per MWh discharged.

    Market range Single ATB value.

    0.58USD/MWh
    NREL ATB 2024

  • PNNL charging price, used to compare the LCOS on PNNL's basis.

    Market range US assumption; European day-ahead off-peak prices are typically higher. No independent range cited.

    30USD/MWh
    PNNL-33283 Table 6.1

  • One full equivalent cycle a day at most.

    Market range 365 (PNNL).

    365cycles/year
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 6.1.3

  • Converts PNNL's 2021 USD into 2021 EUR.

    Market range 1.1827 (2021).

    1.1827USD/EUR
    ECB annual average 2021

  • Mass of the stored water.

    1000kg/m3
    Engineering handbook

  • Potential energy of the stored water.

    9.81m/s2
    Standard

  • Printed installed cost at 100 MW / 10 h, used only as a check.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    263USD/kWh
    PNNL-33283 Executive Summary

  • Printed LCOS used as a benchmark on the LCOS ruler.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    0.11USD/kWh
    PNNL-33283 Executive Summary

  • External CAPEX reference, same overnight boundary (no financing).

    2228USD/kW
    NREL ATB 2024

  • External CAPEX reference.

    4523USD/kW
    NREL ATB 2024

  • Largest plant a sourced cost model covers.

    Market range Up to 2,100 MW.

    2100MW
    Cohen et al. Table 2

  • Lowest head covered by the head cost sensitivity.

    150m
    Cohen et al. Fig. 5; ATB 2024

  • Highest head covered by the head cost sensitivity.

    Market range Up to 750-762 m.

    760m
    Cohen et al. Fig. 4; ATB 2024

  • Shortest sourced duration.

    4h
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 4.6

  • Longest duration offered.

    24h
    PNNL-33283 Sec. 4.6

  • Keeps the scale law finite outside the declared domain.

    Market range Not a market value.

    300EUR/kW
    OpenJack guard

  • Keeps the scale law finite outside the declared domain.

    Market range Not a market value.

    20000EUR/kW
    OpenJack guard

  • Converts Cohen's reservoir volume for the energy check.

    Market range Exact.

    1,233.48184m3/acre-ft
    Unit conversion

  • Converts Cohen's head for the energy check.

    Market range Exact.

    0.3048m/ft
    Unit conversion

  • Printed reservoir volume of Cohen's large case.

    Market range Single value.

    16397acre-ft
    Cohen et al. Tables 2-3

  • Printed net head of Cohen's large case.

    Market range Single value.

    1258ft
    Cohen et al. Tables 2-3

  • Printed stored energy, used only as a check.

    Market range Single value.

    18593MWh
    Cohen et al. Tables 2-3

  • Lower external reference for the CAPEX per kW.

    1,883.8EUR/kW
    NREL ATB 2024

  • Upper external reference for the CAPEX per kW.

    3,824.3EUR/kW
    NREL ATB 2024

  • PNNL installed cost at 100 MW / 10 h.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    2,223.7EUR/kW
    PNNL-33283

  • External reference on the LCOS ruler, valid at its own configuration.

    Market range Single PNNL value.

    93EUR/MWh
    PNNL-33283

  • Bottom-up cost of a large closed-loop plant.

    1839USD/kW
    Cohen et al. Table 4

  • Bottom-up cost of a small closed-loop plant.

    4268USD/kW
    Cohen et al. Table 4

  • Levelised cost per MWh returned to the grid; the charging energy is an input cost divided by the round-trip efficiency.

    Market range Not applicable.

    —
    PNNL-33283 Eq. 1

  • Reservoir volume and design flow derived from stored energy, net head and the generating efficiency.

    Market range Not applicable.

    —
    Cohen et al.

  • Closed or open loop on the same cost basis.

    Market range No independent range cited.

    —
    Scope note

  • Announced simplification.

    Market range 0.43 % of reservoir CAPEX per year (PNNL).

    —
    Scope note

  • Revenue = (discharge price - charging price / RTE) x energy discharged, as an indication of the spread a plant would capture at the entered prices.

    Market range Not applicable.

    —
    Scope note

  • Real or nominal: real.

    Market range Not applicable.

    —
    Scope note